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Mutualism is an economic theory and anarchist school of thought that advocates a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market. Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration.〔Miller, David. 1987. "Mutualism." The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11〕 Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value that holds that when labor or its product is sold, in exchange, it ought to receive goods or services embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility".〔Tandy, Francis D., 1896, ''Voluntary Socialism'', chapter 6, paragraph 15.〕 Mutualism originated from the writings of philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Mutualists oppose the idea of individuals receiving an income through loans, investments, and rent, as they believe these individuals are not laboring. Though Proudhon opposed this type of income, he expressed that he had never intended "...to forbid or suppress, by sovereign decree, ground rent and interest on capital. I think that all these manifestations of human activity should remain free and voluntary for all: I ask for them no modifications, restrictions or suppressions, other than those which result naturally and of necessity from the universalization of the principle of reciprocity which I propose."〔''Proudhon's Solution of the Social Problem'', Edited by Henry Cohen. Vanguard Press, 1927.〕 Insofar as they ensure the worker's right to the full product of their labor, mutualists support markets (or artificial markets) and property in the product of labor. However, they argue for conditional titles to land, whose ownership is legitimate only so long as it remains in use or occupation (which Proudhon called "possession");〔Swartz, Clarence Lee. (What is Mutualism? VI. Land and Rent )〕 thus advocating personal property, but not private property. Although mutualism is similar to the economic doctrines of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, unlike them, mutualism is in favor of large industries.〔Woodcock, George. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'', Broadview Press, 2004, p. 20〕 Therefore, mutualism has been retrospectively characterized sometimes as being a form of individualist anarchism,〔Carson, Kevin A. ''Studies in Mutualist Political Economy (Preface )''.〕 and as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism as well.〔Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America'', Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 978-0-691-04494-1, p.6 ''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p.11〕 Proudhon himself described the "liberty" he pursued as "the synthesis of communism and property."〔Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, ''What Is Property?'', p. 281.〕 Mutualists have distinguished mutualism from state socialism, and do not advocate state control over the means of production. Benjamin Tucker said of Proudhon, that "though opposed to socializing the ownership of capital, () aimed nevertheless to socialize its effects by making its use beneficial to all instead of a means of impoverishing the many to enrich the few...by subjecting capital to the natural law of competition, thus bringing the price of its own use down to cost."〔Tucker, Benjamin, ''State Socialism and Anarchism,'' (State Socialism and Anarchism )〕 ==History== Mutualism, as a term, has seen a variety of related uses. Charles Fourier first used the French term ''mutualisme'' in 1822,〔Fourier, Charles, ''Traité'' (1822), cited in Arthur E. Bestor, Jr., "The Evolution of the Socialist Vocabulary", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 9, No. 3 (Jun., 1948), 259-302.〕 although the reference was not to an economic system. The first use of the noun "mutualist" was in the ''New-Harmony Gazette'' by an American Owenite in 1826.〔''New-Harmony Gazette'', I, 301-02 (14 June 1826) cited in Arthur E. Bestor, Jr., "The Evolution of the Socialist Vocabulary", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 9, No. 3 (Jun., 1948), 259-302.〕 In the early 1830s, a labor organization in Lyons, France, called themselves the "Mutuellists." Pierre Joseph Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his own teachings.〔Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History Of Libertarian Ideas And Movements. Broadview Press. p. 100〕 In ''What Is Mutualism?'' Clarence Lee Swartz gives his own account of the origin of the term, claiming that "()he word "mutualism" seems to have been first used by John Gray, an English writer, in 1832."〔Swartz, Clarence Lee. What is Mutualism?〕 When John Gray's 1825 ''Lecture on Human Happiness'' was first published in the United States in 1826, the publishers appended the ''Preamble and constitution of the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests, located at Valley Forge''. 1826 also saw the publication of the ''Constitution of the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests at Kendal, Ohio''. By 1846, Pierre Joseph Proudhon was speaking of "mutualité" in his writings, and he used the term "mutuellisme," at least as early as 1848, in his "Programme Révolutionnaire." William B. Greene, in 1850, used the term "mutualism" to describe a mutual credit system similar to that of Proudhon. In 1850, the American newspaper ''The Spirit of the Age'', edited by William Henry Channing, published proposals for a "mutualist township" by Joshua King Ingalls〔Joshua King Ingalls, "A Practical Movement for Transition," Spirit of the Age, II, 13 (March 30, 1850), p. 202-4.〕 and Albert Brisbane,〔Albert Brisbane, "The Mutualist Township," The Spirit of the Age, II, 12 (March 23, 1850), 179-183.; II, 13 (March 30, 1850), 200-202.〕 together with works by Proudhon,〔Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, "The Coming Era of Mutualism," ''Spirit of the Age'', I, 7 (August 18, 1849), 107-8.〕 William B. Greene, Pierre Leroux, and others. During the Second French Republic (1848–1852), Proudhon had his biggest public effect through journalism. He got involved with four newspapers: ''Le Représentant du Peuple'' (February 1848 – August 1848); ''Le Peuple'' (September 1848 – June 1849); ''La Voix du Peuple'' (September 1849 – May 1850); ''Le Peuple de 1850'' (June 1850 – October 1850). His polemical writing style, combined with his perception of himself as a political outsider, produced a cynical, combative journalism that appealed to many French workers but alienated others. He repeatedly criticised the government's policies and promoted reformation of credit and exchange. He tried to establish a popular bank (Banque du peuple) early in 1849, but despite over 13,000 people signing up (mostly workers), receipts were limited falling short of 18,000FF and the whole enterprise was essentially stillborn. Proudhon ran for the constituent assembly in April 1848, but was not elected, although his name appeared on the ballots in Paris, Lyon, Besançon, and Lille, France. He was successful, in the complementary elections of June 4, and served as a deputy during the debates over the National Workshops, created by the February 25, 1848, decree passed by Republican Louis Blanc. The workshops were to give work to the unemployed. Proudhon was never enthusiastic about such workshops, perceiving them to be essentially charitable institutions that did not resolve the problems of the economic system. He was against their elimination unless an alternative could be found for the workers who relied on the workshops for subsistence. Proudhon was surprised by the Revolutions of 1848 in France. He participated in the February uprising and the composition of what he termed "the first republican proclamation" of the new republic. But he had misgivings about the new provisional government, headed by Dupont de l'Eure (1767–1855), who, since the French Revolution in 1789, had been a longstanding politician, although often in the opposition. Proudhon published his own perspective for reform which was completed in 1849, ''Solution du problème social'' ("Solution of the Social Problem"), in which he laid out a program of mutual financial cooperation among workers. He believed this would transfer control of economic relations from capitalists and financiers to workers. The central part of his plan was the establishment of a bank to provide credit at a very low rate of interest and the issuing of exchange notes that would circulate instead of money based on gold. Mutualism has been associated with two types of currency reform. Labor notes were first discussed in Owenite circles and received their first practical test in 1827 in the Time Store of former New Harmony member and individualist anarchist Josiah Warren. Mutual banking aimed at the monetization of all forms of wealth and the extension of free credit. It is most closely associated with William B. Greene, but Greene drew from the work of Proudhon, Edward Kellogg, and William Beck, as well as from the land bank tradition. Mutualism can in many ways be considered "the original anarchy," since Proudhon was the first to identify himself as an anarchist. Though mutualism is generally associated with anarchism, it is not ''necessarily'' anarchist. Historian Wendy McElroy reports that American individualist anarchism received an important influence of 3 European thinkers. "One of the most important of these influences was the french political philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon whose words "Liberty is not the Daughter But the Mother of Order" appeared as a motto on ''Libertys masthead" 〔(Wendy McElroy. "The culture of individualist anarchist in Late-nineteenth century America" )〕 (influential individualist anarchist publication of Benjamin Tucker). For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster "It is apparent...that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews ... William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form.".〔(''Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American Individualism'' by Eunice Minette Schuster )〕 After 1850 he became active in labor reform.〔 "He was elected vice-president of the New England Labor Reform League, the majority of the members holding to Proudhon's scheme of mutual banking, and in 1869 president of the Massachusetts Labor Union."〔 He then publishes ''Socialistic, Mutualistic, and Financial Fragments'' (1875).〔 He saw mutualism as the synthesis of "liberty and order."〔 His "associationism...is checked by individualism..."Mind your own business," "Judge not that ye be not judged." Over matters which are purely personal, as for example, moral conduct, the individual is sovereign, as well as over that which he himself produces. For this reason he demands "mutuality" in marriage—the equal right of a woman to her own personal freedom and property."〔 Later, Benjamin Tucker, editor of the anarchist publication ''Liberty'', connected his economic views with those of Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Josiah Warren and Karl Marx, taking sides with Proudhon and Josiah Warren: Mutualist ideas found a fertile ground in the nineteenth century in Spain. In Spain Ramón de la Sagra established the anarchist journal ''El Porvenir'' in La Coruña in 1845 which was inspired by Proudhon´s ideas.〔("Anarchism" at the ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' online. )〕 The catalan politician Francesc Pi i Margall became the principal translator of Proudhon's works into Spanish〔George Woodcock. ''Anarchism: a history of libertarian movements''. Pg. 357〕 and later briefly became president of Spain in 1873 while being the leader of the Democratic Republican Federal Party. According to George Woodcock "These translations were to have a profound and lasting effect on the development of Spanish anarchism after 1870, but before that time Proudhonian ideas, as interpreted by Pi, already provided much of the inspiration for the federalist movement which sprang up in the early 1860's."〔George Woodcock. ''Anarchism: a history of libertarian movements''. Pg. 357〕 According to the ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' "During the Spanish revolution of 1873, Pi y Margall attempted to establish a decentralized, or “cantonalist”, political system on Proudhonian lines."〔 Pi i Margall was a dedicated theorist in his own right, especially through book-length works such as ''La reacción y la revolución'' (en:"Reaction and revolution" from 1855), ''Las nacionalidades'' (en:"Nationalities" from 1877), and ''La Federación'' from 1880. For prominent anarcho-syndicalist Rudolf Rocker "The first movement of the Spanish workers was strongly influenced by the ideas of Pi y Margall, leader of the Spanish Federalists and disciple of Proudhon. Pi y Margall was one of the outstanding theorists of his time and had a powerful influence on the development of libertarian ideas in Spain. His political ideas had much in common with those of Richard Price, Joseph Priestly (sic), Thomas Paine, Jefferson, and other representatives of the Anglo-American liberalism of the first period. He wanted to limit the power of the state to a minimum and gradually replace it by a Socialist economic order."〔("Anarchosyndicalism" by Rudolf Rocker )〕 For historian of the First International G. M. Stekloff: "In April, 1856, there arrived from Paris a deputation of Proudhonist workers whose aim it was to bring about the foundation of a Universal League of Workers. The object of the League was the social emancipation of the working class, which, it was held, could only be achieved by a union of the workers of all lands against international capital. Since the deputation was one of Proudhonists, of course this emancipation was to be secured, not by political methods, but purely by economic means, through the foundation of productive and distributive co-operatives."〔(History of The First International by G. M. Stekloff. London. Martin Lawrence Limited )〕 Later "It was in the 1863 elections that for the first time workers’ candidates were run in opposition to bourgeois republicans, but they secured very few votes...agroup of working-class Proudhonists (among whom were Murat and Tolain, who were subsequently to participate in the founding of the (First) International issued the famous Manifesto of the Sixty, which, though extremely moderate in tone, marked a turning point in the history of the French movement. For years and years the bourgeois liberals had been insisting that the revolution of 1789 had abolished class distinctions. The Manifesto of the Sixty loudly proclaimed that classes still existed. These classes were the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The latter had its specific class interests, which none but workers could be trusted to defend. The inference drawn by the Manifesto was that there must be independent working-class candidates."〔(History of The First International by G. M. Stekloff. London. Martin Lawrence Limited )〕 For Stekloff "the Proudhonists, who were at that date the leaders of the French section of the International. They looked upon the International Workingmen’s Association as a sort of academy or synagogue, where Talmudists or similar experts could “investigate” the workers’ problem; where in the spirit of Proudhon they could excogitate means for an accurate solution of the problem, without being disturbed by the stresses of a political campaign. Thus Fribourg, voicing the opinions of the Parisian group of the Proudhonists (Tolain and Co.) assured his readers that “the International was the greatest attempt ever made in modern times to aid the proletariat towards the conquest, by peaceful, constitutional, and moral methods, of the place which rightly belongs to the workers in the sunshine of civilisation."〔(History of The First International by G. M. Stekloff. London. Martin Lawrence Limited )〕 "The Belgian Federation threw in its lot with the anarchist International at its Brussels Congress, held in December, 1872...those taking part in the socialist movement of the Belgian intelligentsia were inspired by Proudhonist ideas which naturally led them to oppose the Marxist outlook."〔(History of The First International by G. M. Stekloff. London. Martin Lawrence Limited )〕 Nineteenth-century mutualists considered themselves libertarian socialists. While still oriented towards cooperation, mutualists favor free market solutions, believing that most inequalities are the result of preferential conditions created by government intervention.〔(Libertarian Socialism ) by Paul E. Gagnon〕 Mutualism is something of a middle way between classical economics and socialism, with some characteristics of both. Modern-day Mutualist Kevin Carson, considers anarchist mutualism to be "free market socialism." Proudhon supported labor-owned cooperative firms and associations〔Hymans, E., ''Pierre-Joseph Proudhon'', pp. 190–1, Woodcock, George. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'', Broadview Press, 2004, pp. 110 & 112〕 for "we need not hesitate, for we have no choice ... it is necessary to form an ASSOCIATION among workers ... because without that, they would remain related as subordinates and superiors, and there would ensue two ... castes of masters and wage-workers, which is repugnant to a free and democratic society" and so "it becomes necessary for the workers to form themselves into democratic societies, with equal conditions for all members, on pain of a relapse into feudalism."〔''General Idea of the Revolution'', Pluto Press, pp. 215–216 and p. 277〕 As for capital goods (man-made, non-land, "means of production"), mutualist opinions differs on whether these should be commonly managed public assets or private property. Mutualism also had a considerable influence in the Paris Commune. George Woodcock manifests that "a notable contribution to the activities of the Commune and particularly to the organization of public services was made by members of various anarchist factions, including the mutualists Courbet, Longuet, and Vermorel, the libertarian collectivists Varlin, Malon, and Lefrangais, and the bakuninists Elie and Elisée Reclus and Louise Michel."〔Woodcock, George (1962). Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. The World Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0140168211.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Mutualism (economic theory)」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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